Journal on Mathematics Education

Translating mathematical representations through cultural contexts: Affective responses of Indonesian preservice teachers

2025-07-29T02:40:09+00:00

Research on mathematical representations has predominantly emphasized their cognitive and conceptual benefits; however, limited attention has been given to their emotional dimensions, especially within culturally grounded or ethnomathematical contexts. This gap is critical because emotions play a significant role in shaping preservice teachers’ engagement and long-term attitudes toward mathematics. Addressing this issue, the present study introduces a novel perspective by examining how mathematical representations influence the affective responses of prospective primary teachers when tasks are embedded in cultural practices. Employing a mixed-methods design, the study involved 62 preservice teachers who completed a patterning task based on the Javanese Sedekah Bumi ceremony, followed by a researcher-developed questionnaire measuring enjoyment. The results reveal that 79.03% of participants successfully translated verbal descriptions into graphical forms, reflecting a strong visual preference, and that flexible use of multiple representations (72.54%) enhanced both conceptual understanding and positive emotional engagement. Conversely, reliance on a single representation was associated with lower confidence and reduced enjoyment. Notably, 19.35% of participants explicitly reported that the integration of cultural elements increased their motivation and interest. These findings highlight the potential of culturally embedded mathematical tasks not only to foster representational fluency but also to enrich the affective domain, offering valuable implications for the design of teacher education curricula that promote both cognitive and emotional development in mathematics learning.

Metacognitive skills in low self-efficacy students: A case study of junior high school students in the using of the Pythagorean theorem

2025-07-06T00:37:25+00:00

Metacognitive skills are increasingly acknowledged as a decisive determinant of mathematical proficiency, as they enable students to plan, monitor, and evaluate their cognitive strategies in problem-solving. However, empirical studies rarely focus on how these skills are exhibited by students with low self-efficacy, a population particularly vulnerable to persistent underachievement in mathematics. Addressing this gap, the present study provides novel insights into the metacognitive functioning of low self-efficacy students when engaging with problem-solving tasks, specifically in the context of the Pythagorean Theorem. The study aimed to describe the manifestation of metacognitive skills among junior high school students with low self-efficacy and analyze their problem-solving strategies and underlying thought processes. Employing a descriptive qualitative design, participants were identified as low self-efficacy students using a standardized questionnaire. Data were obtained from self-efficacy questionnaires, problem-solving tasks, and semi-structured interviews, and subsequently analyzed through metacognitive indicators embedded within Polya’s problem-solving framework. Findings indicate that while low self-efficacy students exhibited consistent awareness and evaluative monitoring, their regulatory skills were less developed, particularly in the reviewing stage of problem-solving. Although planning and assessment strategies were evident, frequent errors required iterative adjustments before arriving at correct solutions. These results highlight the intertwined relationship between metacognition and affective-motivational factors, suggesting that mathematics instruction should explicitly integrate self-efficacy enhancement with metacognitive training. The study contributes to advancing the theoretical discourse on mathematics learning and offers practical implications for designing instructional models that accommodate learners with diverse motivational profiles.

Advancing future mathematics teachers' geometric thinking through a Van Hiele-based elementary geometry course

2025-08-11T09:54:40+00:00

Research in mathematics education has increasingly emphasized the importance of developing deep conceptual understanding and higher-order thinking skills in geometry learning. However, traditional approaches to teaching elementary geometry in teacher education programs often remain procedural and insufficiently foster progression through the Van Hiele levels of geometric thinking. Addressing this gap, the present study introduces and examines the method of local axiomatization as a novel instructional approach for preparing future mathematics teachers. The purpose of the study is to identify, characterize, and test practical strategies for teaching an "Elementary Geometry" course through this method, with the goal of facilitating teacher candidates’ advancement across the Van Hiele model of geometric thinking. The research highlights effective educational practices, including maintaining student motivation, inquiry-based learning, collaborative interaction, integration of technology, strategic problem-solving, and reflective error analysis. Based on these principles, a university-level course in elementary geometry was designed and implemented as research training for 56 prospective mathematics teachers. Data were collected through the Van Hiele Geometry Test (VHGT), administered before and after the intervention, and through reflective essays written by participants. Statistical analysis using the Pearson criterion demonstrated a significant increase in students’ levels of geometric thinking, while qualitative reflections indicated enrichment of geometric knowledge and more independent, yet guided, learning. The findings suggest that the method of local axiomatization, despite implementation challenges, can serve as an effective and innovative pedagogical framework in mathematics teacher education, contributing to the development of both conceptual understanding and reflective practice in geometry learning.

Geometric patterns of the Papua crown: A culturally inclusive approach to mathematics learning

2025-07-30T02:12:21+00:00

Embracing inclusivity and integrating cultural artifacts into mathematics teaching and learning has sparked the attention of many researchers for decades. Despite these conceptual advancements, the design and implementation of inclusive mathematics instruction in Papua, Indonesia, remains limited. Mathematics teaching and learning in Papua are still primarily dominated using government-provided textbooks. Addressing this void, this article discusses the use of Papua Crown as an inclusive mathematics learning medium due to its relevance to learners' daily lives. We highlight the exotic and rich patterns of the Papua Crown, which can be utilized to teach elementary school mathematics, particularly geometry. We employed an ethnographic approach by conducting observations with the artisans and users of the Papua Crown, interviews with two artisans, a museum curator, an archaeologist, and an anthropology lecturer, and documentation. We analyzed the connection between the geometric patterns in the Papua crown and the geometric concept that the teacher can potentially utilize in their practice. The findings elucidate that there are three geometric patterns in the Papua Crown: the triangle, symbolizing the human spiritual relationship with nature and God; the square, representing beliefs and ways of life based on nature; and the circle, personifying the life cycle of Papuan society. We hypothesize that Papua Crown can provide meaningful and engaging mathematics teaching and learning, as learners can identify existing patterns in geometry, particularly 2D shapes. Third, using geometry patterns from the Papua Crown in teaching and learning mathematics is predicted to assist learners in learning mathematical concepts contextually and appreciate culture by constructing knowledge from their experiences. This study is expected to contribute significantly to the development of a culturally inclusive mathematics learning that enables learners to understand mathematics concepts and honor the pluralism of Indonesian society.

A research proposal for mathematics education: Innovative design thinking using eye tracking technology

2025-08-01T07:30:14+00:00

Understanding the experience and revealing the perception of users towards the products takes the attraction of many researchers, which increases the popularity of the “design thinking” for different research disciplines. In order to serve the product to satisfy needs of target users more efficiently and improve the product and user interaction, the design of the product by means of research field, content, process, methodology has also gained importance in mathematics education. In this study, comprehensive literature research on the role of design in mathematics education and use of eye tracking technology is given in detail. It is suggested to create alternative design categories for a special user group as mathematically gifted students while achieving mathematical tasks related to the fraction concept. Five different models of mathematical tasks expressed as written symbols, manipulative models, oral language, picture and real-world situations were designed for mathematically gifted students whose differentiated characteristics and needs require to be searched. Since proposing effective and differentiated content compatible with their needs is crucial, their reactions through gaze behaviors towards different contents were proposed to be recorded with the use of eye tracking technology, which generates quantitative data. In addition to benefiting from the advantageous position of eye tracking technology in providing methodological efficiency for instructional design studies, the data regarding personal evaluations of the students as qualitative judgments were also suggested to be obtained from the participants simultaneously. This proposal highlights the importance of systematical understanding and revealing the hidden interests of gifted students. It also has a potential to provide an initial guide for both design and mathematics education researchers concerning how an optimum mathematical task should be designed and how eye tracking technology can generate a roadmap in the instructional process.

Empowering early childhood educators to foster spatial and numeracy reasoning through play-based learning

2025-07-29T02:56:56+00:00

Despite the growing awareness of the importance of spatial reasoning in schooling years, there is a notable gap in research literature to promote spatial reasoning in early childhood education in Indonesia. This research aims to address this gap by building the capacity of Indonesian early childhood educators in designing play-based activities to support children’s spatial thinking and reasoning. Twenty early childhood education (ECE) educators coming from different area in Java, Indonesia participated in the study. The study employed design-based research methodology to examine the way in which research team and ECE educators work collaboratively to bring about innovative learning processes and changes in ECE’s practices. A key design principle of the study features play-based activities to promote children’s spatial reasoning skills in the early years were analyzed. This study finds that the professional learning program provides support for ECE educators in three areas, such as foster an understanding of key numeracy concept including one-to one correspondence and cardinality and how it is being implemented, offer insights about spatial ability and its constructs, and exposure to spatially rich play-based activities that could be adopted for ECE centers.

Revitalizing geometry education: The role of indigenous pedagogies in Kalomo district’s secondary schools

2025-06-23T01:36:03+00:00

Mainstream education often marginalizes the cultural heritage and indigenous knowledge systems of local communities, particularly in mathematics instruction. This study investigates the integration of indigenous pedagogies into geometry education to enhance student engagement and cultural responsiveness. Grounded in a critical constructivist paradigm, the study recognizes knowledge as co-constructed through learners’ cultural experiences and emphasizes the transformative potential of indigenous worldviews in shaping mathematical understanding. It employs a qualitative case study design to explore how traditional knowledge impacts student performance and the challenges faced in its incorporation. Data were collected from teachers, administrators, community elders, and students through interviews, focus groups, and classroom observations. Findings through thematic analysis revealed that indigenous pedagogies, such as traditional geometric patterns and community involvement, enhance student engagement, cultural pride, and geometry performance. Moreover, students demonstrated improved conceptual understanding and enthusiasm when learning activities reflected their cultural contexts. However, challenges include resource limitations, curriculum rigidity, and insufficient professional development. The study recommends creating resources tailored to indigenous pedagogies, greater curricular flexibility, and enhanced administrative support. It concludes by emphasizing the long-term value of integrating indigenous knowledge in mathematics education, not only to improve learning outcomes but also to contribute to cultural sustainability and educational equity in Zambia.

Seeing data differently: Developing a local instructional theory for culturally relevant statistical literacy in Indonesian teacher education

2025-07-29T03:13:42+00:00

Statistical literacy has emerged as a central competence in mathematics education, particularly for prospective teachers who must be able to interpret, analyze, and critically evaluate data in a world increasingly shaped by information and statistics. However, previous research shows that many prospective teachers continue to struggle with developing statistical literacy, especially in connecting abstract concepts to meaningful contexts. This gap highlights the need for instructional designs that not only strengthen statistical reasoning but also draw on culturally embedded practices to enhance relevance and engagement. Addressing this challenge, the present study develops a Local Instructional Theory (LIT) that supports prospective teachers’ statistical literacy through the integration of local cultural contexts in South Sumatra, designed within the framework of Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) as adapted in Indonesia, namely Pendidikan Matematika Realistik Indonesia (PMRI). Employing a design research methodology, the study was conducted in three phases: a preliminary investigation, a design experiment (pilot and teaching experiment), and a retrospective analysis. The resulting LIT was structured around three context-based learning trajectories, each targeting a key dimension of statistical literacy: data visualization, data interpretation, and critical evaluation. Instructional activities were grounded in authentic cultural contexts—such as Pempek demand during Ramadan, the Bekarang Iwak fishing tradition, and coffee productivity in Pagar Alam—which were used to bridge statistical concepts with learners lived experiences. Findings from the teaching experiments indicate that prospective teachers demonstrated notable shifts from procedural to conceptual reasoning and from descriptive analysis to reflective critique. Participants also showed improved ability to select appropriate graphical representations, interpret contextual data, and critically assess the credibility and sufficiency of statistical information. These outcomes underscore the potential of culturally relevant instructional design to foster holistic statistical literacy. The study contributes both theoretically and practically by offering a validated model for integrating cultural contexts into mathematics education, thereby enriching prospective teachers’ curriculum and providing a replicable approach for diverse educational settings.

Mathematical reasoning: How students learn mathematics?

2025-08-27T09:11:37+00:00

Mathematics learning is widely recognized as a fundamental component of school curricula, as it equips students with essential competencies, particularly mathematical reasoning, which underpins logical analysis, problem solving, and decision making. The importance of cultivating reasoning skills is especially pronounced in the current era of disruption, characterized by rapid advances in information and communication technology and the automation of human labor by machines and autonomous systems. As physical tasks are increasingly performed by technology, human capacities such as reasoning and emotional intelligence become critical. Mathematical reasoning provides the foundation for understanding concepts, formulating logical arguments, and generating solutions across domains such as the natural sciences, society, and engineering, while also enabling students to approach problems critically and systematically. However, despite its significance, research in primary education has often emphasized procedural knowledge rather than examining how students construct and apply reasoning when confronted with mathematical challenges, leaving a gap in understanding how reasoning develops in authentic classroom contexts. To address this issue, the present study investigates how Grade 4 and Grade 5 students in a primary school in Banjarmasin, Indonesia, employ mathematical reasoning strategies to solve non-routine problems. Through a classroom-based experimental approach, we analyzed students’ solution pathways and the reasoning patterns they demonstrated in navigating mathematical tasks. The findings offer insights into the developmental characteristics of mathematical reasoning in upper primary school and contribute to broader discussions on fostering reasoning skills effectively, with implications for designing mathematics instruction that prepares students to meet the cognitive demands of an era increasingly shaped by automation and technological disruption.

Mathematics in the Tordauk jerpara tel tradition: Contribution of local wisdom to mathematics education innovation in elementary schools

2025-08-11T09:38:23+00:00

This research aimed to present a unique approach by integrating the Tordauk jerpara tel tradition of the Aru community into formal mathematics learning, describing the relationship between local cultural practices and mathematics concepts. The objectives were to identify the mathematics values contained in tradition and design a strategy for integrating the values into the elementary school curriculum to improve conceptual understanding and global mathematics literacy. A qualitative approach with an ethnomathematics design was adopted, additionally 20 third-grade elementary school students in Aru Regency were selected as participants. Data were collected through observation, role playing, interviews, and document analysis. The results showed the Tordauk jerpara tel tradition contained the concepts of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, decimals, ratios, averages, and modulo arithmetic, which could be systematically mapped into the formal elementary school mathematics. The five-stage learning strategy, namely contextual exploration, mathematics identification, formalization, contextual reflection, and extension, can increased student engagement, abstraction ability, thinking flexibility, and internalization of social values. This research made theoretical contributions to ethnomathematics and culture-based mathematics education, while also proposing an adaptable strategy implemented in international contexts. Practical implications include the development of contextual with further research directions focused on strategy validation across cultural contexts.

Prospective teachers’ iceberg designs in realistic mathematics education approach: Connecting mathematics and the SDGs

2025-08-18T10:08:29+00:00

The Iceberg Design framework has been utilized to represent the progression of students’ mathematical understanding, moving from informal, contextually grounded reasoning toward formal mathematical abstraction. This study investigates how prospective mathematics teachers develop Iceberg Designs within the Realistic Mathematics Education (RME) framework, a model that enhances contextual learning and supports mathematical literacy. Thirty prospective mathematics teachers from Universitas Negeri Surabaya participated in this qualitative study, collaboratively designing Iceberg models as part of their coursework. Data from document analysis, interviews, and observations were evaluated using content analysis, the research evaluated the depth and coherence of their designs across four key components: situational contexts which evaluates the relevance and variety of real-world situations, model-of representations which examines the assistance of mathematical representation to connect the context into mathematical concept, model-for abstractions which assess the use of mathematical models toward formalization, and formal mathematical concepts which assess the mathematical ideas being explicitly involved. The findings reveal significant variation in the quality and completeness of the Iceberg Designs. Models for equivalent ratios and quadratic equations exhibited strong integration, using multiple, varied contexts to bridge situational and formal mathematical understanding effectively. Conversely, designs for fraction multiplication and quadrilateral area conservation were often surface level, relying on a single, underdeveloped context that hindered abstraction. Importantly, the study underscores the potential of Iceberg Designs to support the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly in fostering critical thinking, practical problem-solving, and meaningful contextual learning for high quality of education (SDG 4) and decent work for sustainable economic growth (SDG 8). These insights indicate the need for deeper integration of RME principles in teacher education and curriculum development through sustained investment in this area.

Instructional process for the construction of the derivative function: Modelling and simulation in GeoGebra from the Ontosemiotic Approach

2025-08-15T06:36:06+00:00

The conceptual and procedural understanding of the derivative remains a persistent challenge in undergraduate engineering education, particularly in bridging symbolic, graphical, and applied interpretations. Despite advances in digital tools, few instructional designs systematically integrate interactive exploration with formal mathematical reasoning. This study addresses this gap by proposing an instructional framework that combines functional modeling with GeoGebra-based simulations, grounded in the Ontosemiotic Approach to Mathematical Knowledge and Instruction (OSA), specifically targeting first-year engineering students in Chile. A mixed exploratory–descriptive design was implemented, combining quantitative and qualitative analyses. A three-session intervention involved 102 students who engaged in tasks assessing derivative understanding across multiple representations, including graphical slopes, symbolic differentiation, and applied rate-of-change problems. Data were collected via performance questionnaires and written productions, with validity ensured through expert review and reliability confirmed via pilot testing. Students exhibited strong proficiency in graphical interpretation and procedural manipulation of derivatives, with success rates exceeding 85%. Conversely, tasks requiring formal argumentation, rigorous use of limit definitions, and theoretical justification showed reduced performance at 68%, highlighting the challenge of connecting exploratory simulations with formal mathematical reasoning. The findings demonstrate that integrating functional dependency analysis, interactive simulations, and OSA principles can strengthen comprehension of derivatives, particularly in geometric interpretations and formal rate-of-change reasoning. This research provides a replicable instructional design that enhances both conceptual insight and procedural competence, offering evidence-based strategies for technology-enhanced mathematics instruction in engineering curricula and contributing to broader curriculum development.

Metacognitive-discursive activities in Indonesian mathematics classrooms: A two-stage comparative case study

2025-08-28T09:53:35+00:00

Classroom discussions are essential for developing students’ mathematical understanding. While prior studies have examined teacher-led instruction, there remains a gap in understanding how metacognitive and discursive activities shape the quality of mathematical discussions at the whole-class level. To address this gap, this study proposes a systematic framework for analyzing public classroom discussions with a focus on metacognitive-discursive activities that support mathematical argumentation. The analysis centers on two dimensions: (1) monitoring the logical validity, correctness, and completeness of mathematical arguments, and (2) identifying how discourse quality is enhanced or obstructed by participants’ communicative strategies. This qualitative study employed a two-stage procedure: first, a fine-grained micro-level coding of classroom interactions to identify metacognitive and discursive activities, including monitoring (of terminology, methods, and argument consistency), reflection (on representational structures and methodological effectiveness), and discursive actions that either promote or hinder mutual understanding and second, a macro-level evaluation of discussion quality using a standardized rating framework. This methodological approach, applied for the first time in the Indonesian mathematics education context, enabled a more comprehensive analysis of discourse processes in whole-class discussions and helped identify phases in which strategies for enhancing the classroom discussion culture could be developed. The findings indicate that productive mathematical discussions require an environment that encourages students to articulate and critique solution strategies, justify their reasoning, and collaboratively resolve discrepancies with minimal teacher scaffolding. The study contributes to mathematics education research by providing a rigorous analytical model for examining mathematical discourse and offering evidence-based recommendations for cultivating a classroom culture that promotes deeper mathematical understanding.

Estimating probabilities through the Mongolian Shagai game: A culturally responsive approach to teaching statistics

2025-08-15T06:45:24+00:00

Culturally responsive approaches in mathematics education have been widely advocated; however, empirical investigations that embed traditional artifacts into probability and statistics instruction remain limited. This study addresses this gap by employing Shagai—a traditional Mongolian four-sided ankle bone—as an ethnomathematical instrument to support the development of statistical reasoning. In total, 10,050 single-throw trials were conducted across three groups: community participants (n = 5,000), pre-service mathematics teachers (n = 5,000), and a researcher-led demonstration (n = 50). Empirical probabilities for the four Shagai outcomes—horse, camel, sheep, and goat—were estimated as 0.12, 0.13, 0.39, and 0.36, respectively, with convergence achieved after approximately 8,000 trials, indicating a statistically stable but non-uniform distribution. These results informed the design of a four-hour instructional workshop with nine doctoral students in education. Participants conducted Shagai-based experiments, calculated statistical measures, and analyzed data using SPSS. Qualitative reflections were subjected to thematic analysis, which revealed enhanced statistical understanding, interdisciplinary insight, and awareness of cultural integration. A paired-sample t-test confirmed a statistically significant improvement in conceptual understanding . The findings suggest that embedding traditional knowledge systems into statistics education can deepen conceptual comprehension and enrich culturally relevant pedagogy.

Culturally responsive approaches to geometric translation: Exploring Songket motifs and students’ proving trajectories

2025-09-17T21:30:00+00:00

Research on students’ proving processes in geometry has largely emphasized formal reasoning, with limited exploration of cultural contexts as scaffolds for mathematical understanding. Addressing this gap, this study investigates the integration of South Sumatera Songket motifs as culturally relevant tools to support students’ proving processes in learning geometric translation. Using a Design Research methodology, a validation study was conducted with 30 junior high school students in Palembang. The research progressed through three phases: preparation, design experiments (preliminary and main teaching experiments), and retrospective analysis. Learning tasks were designed based on Habermas’ Construct of Rationality—epistemic, teleological, and communicative—to structure the proving trajectory. Culturally grounded tasks facilitated students’ progression from intuitive exploration to formal justification. In the first activity, the Songket Durian motif supported recognition of translation as an isometric transformation through visual pattern analysis. Subsequent tasks introduced algebraic reasoning with coordinate shifts and vector notation, leading to replication of the Perahu Kajang motif across Cartesian quadrants to formulate general transformation rules. These findings reveal the effectiveness of cultural artifacts in supporting both intuitive and formal dimensions of proof. Embedding cultural artifacts in mathematics instruction fosters culturally responsive and proof-oriented learning, enhancing conceptual understanding while strengthening connections between mathematics and cultural identity. This study contributes a novel approach by systematically employing cultural motifs to design proof-based learning trajectories in geometry, offering a model for integrating cultural heritage with mathematical reasoning in diverse educational settings.

Bridging learning gaps: Testing the efficacy of simulation-based instruction on the mastery of fractions

2025-09-19T21:02:51+00:00

Persistent underachievement in mathematics, particularly in foundational concepts such as fractions, remains a critical challenge in many African educational systems, including Nigeria. Despite numerous interventions, existing instructional approaches often fail to adequately address pupils’ conceptual understanding, highlighting the need for innovative pedagogical strategies. This study introduces simulation-based instruction as a novel approach to enhance pupils’ comprehension of fractions at the primary school level. The research aimed to examine the effect of simulation-based instruction on pupils’ achievement in fractions in Ogun State, Nigeria. A mixed-methods design was adopted, involving 102 pupils from two intact classes in schools administered by the State Universal Basic Education Board, Abeokuta South. Quantitative data were collected using a Fraction Achievement Test (reliability coefficient = 0.72), while qualitative insights were obtained from a Students’ Perception Interview Guide on Simulation. Both experimental and control groups completed pretests and posttests, with analysis conducted using ANCOVA. Results indicated a statistically significant improvement in the experimental group (Mean = 16.1, SD = 3.69) compared to the control group (Mean = 10.6, SD = 2.50), F(1, 99) = 50.70, p < .05, with 51% of variance explained by the treatment effect. The findings demonstrate that simulation-based instruction substantially enhances pupils’ achievement in fractions, suggesting its potential for broader implementation in mathematics education to bridge persistent learning gaps and promote equitable academic attainment.

Fostering mathematical creativity and autonomy through a STEM-based digital learning space

2025-09-19T10:14:36+00:00

Although STEM education emphasizes the integration of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics to foster 21st-century competencies, in Indonesian secondary schools STEM subjects are still commonly taught in isolation, while digital learning remains limited to passive presentation tools with little personalization. This gap highlights the need for innovative designs that connect STEM domains and foster higher-order mathematical skills. To address this, the present study develops and evaluates a STEM-Based Digital Learning Space (DLS) integrating a Personal Learning Environment (PLE) and a Personal Teaching Environment (PTE), aimed at enhancing junior high school students’ creative mathematical thinking and autonomous learning in probability. Using the 4D model (Define, Design, Develop, and Disseminate), the DLS was validated by experts (Aiken’s V ≥ 0.80) and tested through multi-stage field trials: a pilot (n = 7), an expanded trial (n = 60, two schools), and a large-scale implementation (n = 120, four schools). Results confirmed high feasibility (Mean = 95.07%, SD = 1.2) and practicality (Mean = 89.38%, SD = 2.1). Effectiveness testing demonstrated significant gains in creative mathematical thinking (N-Gain = 0.554, moderate effect) and strengthened autonomous learning, supported by significant interaction effects (F = 4.62, p < .05). Specific features yielded measurable outcomes: simulations enhanced fluency and flexibility, adaptive quizzes supported metacognitive regulation, digital worksheets improved originality, and collaborative forums fostered responsibility. Overall, the DLS proved effective even in low-resource contexts and scalable through teacher training, offering evidence-based guidance for advancing digital literacy and supporting the Merdeka Belajar policy.